Honest account and hopeful questions — Image: "Anthem," tony Abeyta, 2004. National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution.

Documents > Collections > Collection

Native Americans

Selected and introduced by Jace Weaver

Image: "Anthem," tony Abeyta, 2004. National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution.

Primary can help us construct an honest account of the past

Core Document Volume Native Americans $12.99

Buy Softcover

The utmost good faith shall always be observed toward the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent; and, in their property, rights, and liberty, they shall never be invaded or disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by Congress. . . .

Northwest Ordinance (1787)

Settlers in North America, be they the Vikings, the French, or the English, followed the same pattern with regard to the Indigenous peoples they encountered: first cooperation, then conflict. Even the Spanish, whose reputation for unrelenting cruelty preceded them, were initially treated with hospitality by the Pueblos in New Mexico.

The young American Republic promised fair dealing with the original sovereigns of the land it occupied. It professed to have a trust obligation toward them. Despite periodic attempts to live up to these responsibilities, its efforts were hampered by fundamental misunderstandings of Native cultures and a paternalistic attitude that non-Indians knew what was best for Native Americans. The old pattern was replicated. This volume documents a repeated cycle of conflict and resistance. There were, however, non-Natives who saw things clearly. William Tecumseh Sherman, who prosecuted the Indian Wars in the West with the same 鈥渉ard-war鈥� methods he employed during the Civil War, was among those who were gimlet-eyed about U.S. Indian affairs. His mordant observations dot this book. (The irony in Sherman鈥檚 middle name is obvious; his father was an admirer of the great Shawnee leader.)

Dispossession and loss are major themes in this volume. At the time Columbus arrived, best estimates are that there were between twelve and fifteen million Indigenous persons in the territory that is today the United States. This population reached its nadir in 1900, when the U.S. Census recorded just 237,000 American Indians. This tremendous population loss was not so much due to cruel treatment or warfare鈥攖hough both these occurred鈥攂ut to a dramatic demographic crash from 鈥渧irgin soil plagues鈥濃€攄iseases Europeans brought with them to which the Native population had no natural immunities. The biggest killer was smallpox, but the list also includes measles, mumps, rubella, pertussis, chicken pox, and influenza.

This book seeks to cover almost five hundred years of American Indian history from Jonas 惭颈肠丑补毛濒颈耻蝉鈥� letter in 1628聽 to the Supreme Court鈥檚 2020 decision in McGirt v. Oklahoma, which ruled that much of that state remained Indian land or reservations because of treaties signed between Indian tribes and the U.S. government. From the Royal Proclamation of 1763 to the present day, government policy has constrained Native life. Yet despite these actions, Natives have always sought to live their lives on their own terms and to maintain the sovereignty of tribes as nations-within-a-nation, separate sovereigns in the U.S. federal system. For its part, federal policy has always vacillated between wanting to 鈥渃ivilize鈥� and assimilate Indians and encouraging self-government and self-determination (See Special Message on Indian Affairs).

Conflict and warfare are major themes herein as well, from King Philip鈥檚 War in 1675 to the last massacre of Indians in 1911 (See Survivor Returns to Site of Last Indian Massacre). Aggressive assimilation attempts through education (鈥渆ducation for extinction鈥�) is a thread from the earliest colonization (See Letter to Adrian Smoutius) through boarding schools modeled on Richard Henry Pratt鈥檚 Carlisle Indian Industrial School (See The Advantages of Mingling Indians with Whites). Another thread, however, is Native resistance and protest as manifested in the occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969 (See Alcatraz Proclamation) and the Standing Rock Sioux鈥檚 opposition to the Dakota Access Pipeline in 2015 and 2016 (See Resolution Regarding Dakota Access Pipeline). Traditional Native cultures are religiously based, and religion has played a vital role in Native resistance, especially 鈥渞aising-up鈥� movements from 笔辞苍迟颈补肠鈥檚 Rebellion and Tecumseh鈥檚 alliance (See Speech of Tenskwatawa and Address to the Osage) to the Ghost Dance of 1889鈥�1890 (See Letter Regarding the Ghost Dance Doctrine and Testimony on Wounded Knee).

I have sought to give pride of place to Indigenous voices (although we must remember that many Native speeches were transcribed by whites). I did not want a dry assemblage of laws, legal decisions, and treaties. Though much of Indian existence has been constrained by such documents, they often do not convey the meaning and importance of events. (Legal Status of Indians offers an annotated list of some of the most important documents bearing on the legal status of Indians.) While covering the Indian Wars from King Philip鈥檚 War to the last Indian massacre in 1911, resistance to violent assimilationist policies from Christian evangelization (See 鈥淭he Indians: The Ten Lost Tribes鈥�), to boarding schools, to Termination and Relocation, and the radical activism of the 1960s and 1970s, I have tried to include surprising documents, such as the Haudenosaunee Confederacy鈥檚 declaration of war in 1942, that are not the 鈥渦sual suspects鈥� often anthologized. Though it includes only forty-six documents, I believe this volume will give both teachers and students plenty to chew on.

American Indians and their ancestors have thousands of years of history on this continent. They have been part of the American story before day one鈥攖hat is, before the coming of Europeans. It is often glibly said that these first American were not U.S. citizens until 1924. The Indian Citizenship Act of that year, however, was merely a 鈥渃lean-up鈥� measure covering only roughly the third of Natives who were not yet citizens. American Indians remain today a vital part of the story of the United States, as they always will be.

Note on terms: Many people assume that 鈥淣ative American鈥� is a more polite and preferred term to 鈥淎merican Indian.鈥� This, however, is not the case. The former, which did not even exist until after World War II, grew out of the urban Native experience that resulted from the federal policy of Termination and Relocation (See House Concurrent Resolution 108 补苍诲听Reaffirmed Statement on Indian Policy ). It is therefore incorrect to refer to any before that time as Native Americans. 鈥淎merican Indian鈥� is an older, more rural, more reservation-based term still in use today. In the last fifteen years, an uppercase 鈥淚ndigenous鈥� has gained currency. Sometimes, simply 鈥淣ative鈥� is employed. I use all these terms interchangeably as seems appropriate.

Conflict and Warfare

Governmental Policy

Civilization, Assimilation, and Education

Religion and Religious Movements

Diplomacy, Negotiations, and Treaties

Diminishment, Dispossession, and Loss

Sovereignty, Resistance, and Protest

For each of the Documents in this collection, we suggest below in section 1 questions relevant for that document alone and in Section 2 questions that require comparison with other documents.

Jonas 惭颈肠丑补毛濒颈耻蝉, Letter to Adrian Smoutius, August 11, 1628

惭颈肠丑补毛濒颈耻蝉, and many who came after him, advocated educating Native children and forgetting about trying to do anything with adults. Why did he and the others so strongly advocate such a strategy? Was this a proper strategy? Why or why not?
What does Samson Occom鈥檚 account of his life tell us about the strategy that 惭颈肠丑补毛濒颈耻蝉 advocated?

John Easton, Metacomet Explains the Causes of King Philip鈥檚 War, 1675

Relations between early English settlers and Indians were initially cordial. What were the sources for their cooperation? Why did relations between settlers and Indians sour? What caused conflict between them?
In what ways did the events leading up to King Philip鈥檚 War and the war itself set the pattern for later conflicts?

The Pueblo Revolt of 1680: Declaration of Pedro Naranjo, December 19, 1681

What were the reasons for the Pueblo Revolt of 1680? How did the Pueblos go about planning and executing their rebellion against the Spanish?
The Pueblo Revolt is sometimes called the 鈥淔irst American Revolution鈥�; certainly it was the most successful Indian revolt in history. Why do you think it succeeded when others like those of Tecumseh听补苍诲 Little Crow听蹿补颈濒别诲?

Pontiac, 鈥淭he Master of Life,鈥� 1763

Who was the Master of Life, and what was his message for Algonkian Indians around the Great Lakes? What were the reasons for 笔辞苍迟颈补肠鈥檚 Rebellion and what was its outcome?
How did 笔辞苍迟颈补肠鈥檚 Rebellion relate to later raising-up movements (See Speech of Tenskwatawa and Letter Regarding the Ghost Dance Doctrine)?

King George III, Royal Proclamation of 1763, October 7, 1763

How did the Royal Proclamation attempt to regulate interaction between whites and Indians? Was the proclamation a wise course? Did it work? How might it have been more effective?
How has the U.S. government sought to regulate Natives and their interaction with non-Natives? Consider the Fort Laramie Treaty, The Advantages of Mingling Indians with Whites, and House Concurrent Resolution 108.

Samson Occom, A Short Narrative of My Life, 1768

This document is the earliest known autobiography by an Indigenous person in North America. Who was Samson Occom and what was his background? What was Occom鈥檚 reason for penning this memoir?
How is Occom鈥檚 self-representation similar to other statements by Indians such as Joseph Brant, Red Cloud, and Sitting Bull? How is it different?

George Washington, Letter to James Duane, September 7, 1783

Who was James Duane, and why would he write to George Washington inquiring about his opinions regarding Indian affairs? Go beyond the simple fact that they were friends. What policies did Washington advocate for how the new United States should deal with Indians, and what do these policies and this letter reveal about his attitudes toward them?
How does Washington鈥檚 advice compare or relate to the Royal Proclamation of 1763 twenty years earlier?

Cornplanter, Speech to the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, October 29, 1790

What was Cornplanter鈥檚 purpose in this speech in Philadelphia? What were his complaints? What is the significance of him calling the white leaders in attendance 鈥渇athers鈥� rather than 鈥渂rothers鈥�?
Which Indian leaders of later eras lodged complaints similar to those of Cornplanter? How do they differ? Consider Address at Cooper Union and Testimony before Senate Select Committee.

Red Jacket, Speech of Red Jacket, 1792

Red Jacket became famous for his debates with Christian missionaries. What were his objections to bringing the new religion to Indians? What were the chief 鈥檚 other complaints against whites and the United States?
Some Indians differed from Red Jacket in their views on Christianity. Samson Occom, for instance, was himself a Christian missionary to other Indians. Wovoka, the prophet of the 1889鈥�90 Ghost Dance, incorporated Jesus into his raising-up movement. What do you think accounted for these very different reactions to Christianity?

Joseph Brant, Speech of Joseph Brant, April 21, 1794

Joseph Brant fought for the British during the American Revolution. After the war, like other Haudenosaunee who did so, he moved to Canada, although he moved freely back and forth between both countries. What did he want the new nation to know about the Haudenosaunee?
Brant used the word 鈥渨e鈥� throughout his speech. Sometimes this referred collectively to the Haudenosaunee, at other times to himself. After reading the document carefully, what do you think he wanted the United States to know about Joseph Brant? How did Brant鈥檚 effort resemble later efforts of Indians like Sitting Bull听补苍诲 Red Cloud聽on behalf of their peoples?

Tenskwatawa, Speech of Tenskwatawa, 1807

Tenskwatawa is sometimes called the 鈥淪hawnee Prophet.鈥� What message did he have for Indians?
Tecumseh鈥檚 rebellion, fed by 罢别苍蝉办飞补迟补飞补鈥檚 visions, was the second great raising-up movement. What was behind these revitalization movements (See The Master of Life, Letter Regarding the Ghost Dance Doctrine)? What was their appeal? Did they differ in any significant ways?

Tecumseh, Address to the Osage, 1811

What arguments did Tecumseh make to the Osage, a Plains tribal nation far from the Great Lakes and the Midwest? Tecumseh鈥檚 vision was a grand alliance of all Indian tribes against the United States. What were the obstacles to this? What were its inherent weaknesses?
How was Tecumseh鈥檚 rebellion similar to 笔辞苍迟颈补肠鈥檚? How was it different from Wovoka鈥檚 Ghost Dance movement?

Petitions by Cherokee Women, 1817, 1818, 1831

Three petitions by women of the Cherokee Nation are included here. The first two were written at a time the Cherokee were under pressure from the United States to cede their lands in North Carolina. What were the women鈥檚 arguments against doing that? The third position, written after the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830, expressed the women鈥檚 opposition to Removal. Why were they opposed to moving west of the Mississippi? What was their line of argument?
How are the arguments advanced by the Cherokee women in these petitions like those the Cherokee advanced in the letter to John C. Calhoun?

John Ross et al., Letter to John C. Calhoun, February 11, 1824

In 1802 the federal government signed a compact with the state of Georgia. In exchange for Georgia giving up its claims to western lands, the government committed to removing all remaining Indians from within the state鈥檚 borders. John Ross and his fellow Cherokee wrote to the Secretary of War in opposition to the agreement. How did they state their objections? The letter made a novel proposal that would have given Georgia more land. What was it? Was it reasonable? What were the inherent impediments to Ross鈥� proposal?
How do the arguments in this letter resemble those of the Cherokee women in their three petitions?

Elias Boudinot, An Address to the Whites, May 26, 1826

This speech had multiple purposes. What were they? What evidence did Boudinot offer of the Cherokees鈥� progress in the process of civilization?
Since the turn of the nineteenth century, some Cherokees have invested a lot in the project of 鈥渃ivilization.鈥� How does Boudinot鈥檚 letter relate to Ruth Muskrat Bronson鈥檚 speech to President Coolidge in 1923?

James Kent, Commentaries on American Law, 1828

Why would farmers鈥� claim to land supersede that of hunters and gatherers? What was Kent鈥檚 position on the sovereignty of Indian tribal nations? How did it relate to Indian or aboriginal title?
How does Joseph Story鈥檚聽view of Indian sovereignty relate to Kent鈥檚 opinions on their land rights?

William Apess, 鈥淭he Indians: The Ten Lost Tribes,鈥� 1831

Why did some whites believe Indians were the Lost Tribes of Israel? What was Apess鈥� purpose in saying the belief was true? Was this belief on the part of whites positive or negative for Indians? Why?
William Apess was a Christian, yet many other Indians objected to the new religion the whites tried to impose on them. What reasons did Red Jacket聽give for his opposition?

Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States, 1833

What was Story鈥檚 view of Indian tribal sovereignty? What was his basis for holding this view?
How does Story鈥檚 view differ from James Kent鈥檚?

John Ross, Address at Inter-Tribal Council at Tahlequah, June 19, 1943

What was the Inter-tribal Council held at Tahlequah, and what was its purpose? How many tribal nations were invited? How many attended? What did the Inter-Tribal Compact say? Would you judge the council a success? Why or why not?
Like Joseph Brant, John Ross was, among his other accomplishments, a diplomat. What is the relationship between Ross鈥� efforts and Brant鈥檚?

Little Crow, Speech to a War Council, August 18, 1862

What were the reasons the Dakota in Minnesota staged an uprising in 1862? Why did Little Crow tell them it was ill-advised? What did Little Crow tell the warriors he would do? Why do you think he made that decision?
In what ways were the reasons for Little Crow鈥檚 War similar or dissimilar to those of King Philip鈥檚 War almost a century earlier?

Fort Laramie Treaty, April 29, 1868

What events led up to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868? Often, Indians signed treaties because they were coerced. Was this treaty a rare win for Indians? Why or why not? Why did article 6 of the treaty exclude 鈥渕ineral land.鈥� What do the provisions of the treaty tell us about what the U.S. government thought was best for the Indians? Were the provisions of the treaty realistic?
When the Seminole were removed to Indian Territory in the 1830s, they were promised that their new lands would be theirs for all future time, just as the Sioux were promised the Great Sioux Reservation created by this treaty. In neither case was the promise kept. How did the Supreme Court seek to redress the wrongs done to the Sioux and the Seminole in United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians听补苍诲 McGirt v. Oklahoma?

Red Cloud, Address at Cooper Union, June 16, 1870

What misconceptions about his people did Red Cloud want to dispel in his brief remarks? What was his purpose in addressing a white audience in New York?
How similar was his purpose to Elias Boudinot鈥檚 in his Address to the Whites?

Chief Joseph, 鈥淚 Will Fight No More Forever,鈥� October 5, 1877

What were Chief Joseph鈥檚 reasons for surrendering to the Army? Put yourself in his position. How must he have felt? How would you have felt?
Like Standing Bear and Geronimo, Chief Joseph and his Nez Perce left their reservation because they wanted to be left alone. In all these cases they did no harm to the United States. Why was the United States determined to keep them on the reservation?

Standing Bear v. Crook, May 12, 1879

Standing Bear brought his case for intensely personal reasons, but it had repercussions for Indian people in general. How? A short while after Standing Bear won his case, his brother was shot and killed attempting to leave the reservation in Indian Territory. How can you reconcile that with Standing Bear鈥檚 victory? Reservations were viewed as temporary measures. Those who established them saw their purpose as twofold: to protect settlers from Indians and to protect Indians from depredations by whites. Was confining Indians to reservations fair? What, if any, were the alternatives, given the circumstances?
In the cases of Chief Joseph听补苍诲 Geronimo, the U.S. government devoted significant resources to returning Indians to the reservation. In Standing Bear鈥檚 case, General Crook objected to his orders to return Standing Bear and his followers to their reservation in Indian Territory. Why did the U.S. government care?

Sitting Bull, Testimony before Senate Select Committee, 1883

What things did Sitting Bull want the senators to tell the 鈥淕reat White Father鈥� (the president of the United States)? He referred several times to his country. What country did he mean? What things did Sitting Bull want Congress (and the president) to deliver to him and his people? What were his rationales for these requests?
Sitting Bull and Red Cloud are often seen as oppositional figures. For instance, Sitting Bull opposed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. He told Jesuit missionary Pierre Jean De Smet, 鈥淚 wish all to know that I do not propose to sell any part of my country.鈥� How does his testimony here compare to Red Cloud鈥檚 remarks at Cooper Union?

Courts of Indian Offenses, 1883

The First Amendment promises the free exercise of religion, and yet the 鈥淩eligious Crimes Code鈥� outlawed American Indian traditional religious practices. Punishment for infractions ranged from denial of food rations to jail, with little discretion left to the courts鈥� judges. What was the federal government鈥檚 purpose in banning Indians鈥� traditional religions? Do you think it was the correct thing to do? Though such practices went underground and to some extent survived, the rules did a great deal of damage to Native cultures and traditions. Further, the judges on the courts were Indians themselves. How would you have felt as one of these judges?
How did the Court of Indian Offenses relate to plans for educating Indians like those of 惭颈肠丑补毛濒颈耻蝉听补苍诲 Pratt?

Ely Parker, Letter to Harriett Converse, July 7, 1885

As General Grant鈥檚 adjutant, Ely Parker physically wrote the surrender General Lee signed at Appomattox. After the signing, Lee went up to Parker and said that was nice to see one 鈥渞eal American鈥� in the room. Parker replied that all in the room were Americans. What did Lee mean? What did Parker mean? Parker was a highly accomplished man who because he was an Indian was not permitted to pursue his chosen profession of law. Nevertheless, thanks to his relationship with President Grant, he rose to the pinnacle of power as Commissioner of Indian Affairs. He made powerful enemies, though, who forced him out of office. In this letter, what did Parker enumerate as the things he tried to accomplish, and why did some want to bring him down?
How does Parker鈥檚 account relate to Carlos Montezuma鈥檚 criticisms of the Bureau of Indian Affairs?

Geronimo, Statement of Geronimo, March 25, 1886

In this talk Geronimo gave his reasons for leaving the reservation. What were they? What proofs did he offer to back up his claims?
As with Chief Joseph, Geronimo just wanted to be left alone. Why was the U.S. government so intent on confining Indians to reservations?

Wovoka, Letter Regarding the Ghost Dance Doctrine, 1891

What instructions did Wovoka give to Indians? What was the appeal of Wovoka鈥檚 Ghost Dance movement to Indians? What was going on in their lives at the time?
Compare Wovoka鈥檚 Ghost Dance vision with 罢别苍蝉办飞补迟补飞补鈥檚? How are they similar?

Turning Hawk, Captain Sword, Spotted Horse, American Horse, Testimony on Wounded Knee, February 11, 1891

Not all Indians believed in the Ghost Dance. Sitting Bull, for instance, was opposed to the movement. These four Indians spoke against the new religion. What were their reasons? In any battle鈥攅ven a one-sided massacre such as Wounded Knee鈥攖here is often a great deal of confusion. On what points do these Indians鈥� accounts disagree?
How is the Wounded Knee Massacre different from that of Shoshone Mike and his family (See Survivor Returns to Site of Last Indian Massacre)?

Richard Henry Pratt, 鈥淭he Advantages of Mingling Indians with Whites,鈥� 1892

What kind of education did Pratt advocate for Indians? What did he see as the advantages? Was Pratt鈥檚 attitude toward Indians and their education patronizing or paternalistic? Why or why not?
How do Pratt鈥檚 ideas of Indian education compare with those of 惭颈肠丑补毛濒颈耻蝉聽nearly three centuries earlier?

President Theodore Roosevelt, First Annual Message to Congress, December 3, 1901

Why was the General Allotment Act, which broke up commonly held reservation lands into private property, so important to President Roosevelt? In what terms did he speak about it? What did he say about the education of Indians?
Compare President Roosevelt鈥檚 ideas with those of Richard Henry Pratt. How do they differ?

Quanah Parker, Speech of Quanah Parker, 1910

What did Quanah Parker want for his people? Why? Did Parker foresee the extinction of Comanches, or was he talking about something else?
How do Parker鈥檚 brief remarks compare with Sitting Bull鈥檚 testimony before the Senate committee and Red Cloud鈥檚 remarks at Cooper Union?

Carlos Montezuma, 鈥淟et My People Go!鈥� September 30, 1915

What were Montezuma鈥檚 objections to federal Indian policy? Why? What course of action did he prefer? What do you think were the influences upon him?
Compare Montezuma鈥檚 criticisms of the Bureau of Indian Affairs with Ely Parker鈥檚 account of his tenure as the bureau鈥檚 commissioner. See聽Letter to Harriet Converse.

Ruth Muskrat Bronson, Speech to Calvin Coolidge, December 1923

The federal government and whites often referred to the 鈥淚ndian problem.鈥� From their perspective, what was the problem? How did the Indians鈥� view, as expressed by Bronson, differ? For what things did Bronson ask President Coolidge? What did she see as Indians鈥� contributions to the United States? How did she say Indian history pointed the way for this and for Indian youth?
How do the views expressed by Bronson compare with those of Elias Boudinot a century earlier?

Antonio Luhan, Letter to John Collier, 1935

What was federal Indian policy prior to President Franklin Roosevelt? How did the Indian New Deal differ from it? What was the new policy鈥檚 goal? What was the Indian Reorganization Act? What difficulties did Luhan tell Commissioner of Indian Affairs Collier he was encountering in promoting the IRA?
How did the distrust Luhan encountered relate to the criticisms of Indian policy voiced by Carlos Montezuma?

Haudenosaunee Confederacy, Declaration of War, June 13, 1942

Why was it important to the Haudenosaunee Confederacy to declare war on the Axis Powers separately from the United States? What is sovereignty? Federally recognized tribes are separate sovereigns within our federal system. They are sometimes referred to as nations within a nation. Is it possible to have nations within a nation?
The Supreme Court鈥檚 decision in McGirt v. Oklahoma allowed some tribal nations in Oklahoma to expand their jurisdiction, and hence sovereignty, over their reservation lands. Does this perhaps help explain the need of the Haudenosaunee to declare war?

House Concurrent Resolution 108, 1953

Following World War II, Termination and Relocation became federal Indian policy. This resolution is one manifestation of that policy. What were the policy鈥檚 elements? How did it differ from the Indian New Deal? What was the intention of this policy? Was it a wise course? Why or why not?
How does Resolution 108 relate to Carlos Montezuma鈥檚 views expressed in “Let My People Go!”?

National Congress of American Indians, Reaffirmed Statement on Indian Policy, 1959

According to the NCAI, what was the condition of Native Americans in 1959? How did this influence the congress鈥� position on Termination and Relocation? What concrete things did it demand?
Is there any relationship between the stance of the NCAI on Termination and Relocation and the views expressed by Carlos Montezuma?

Indians of All Tribes, Alcatraz Proclamation, November 20, 1969

Indians of All Tribes was an ad hoc organization of Indians from different tribal nations. Why did they occupy Alcatraz Island in 1969? What did they hope to accomplish? In this proclamation, what demands did they make? Were these demands realistic? Was realism the point?
How was the radical activism of the late 1960s and early 1970s, as represented by this proclamation, an outgrowth of Termination and Relocation (See House Concurrent Resolution 108, Reaffirmed Statement on Indian Policy)? How did the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 factor into the occupation of Alcatraz?

President Richard Nixon, Special Message on Indian Affairs, July 8, 1970

With this message to Congress, President Nixon formally ended Termination and Relocation. He announced a new federal policy toward Indians: Self-Determination. What were President Nixon鈥檚 reasons for this change in policy? What did he hope the new policy would achieve?
Compare President Nixon鈥檚 Self-Determination policy with the Indian New Deal. How are they similar? How are they different?

Justice Harry Blackmun, Justice William Rehnquist, United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, June 30, 1980

The Sioux fought for a hundred years for the return of the Black Hills, their most sacred site. What did the majority of the Supreme Court say about the taking of the Black Hills? Why did Justice Rehnquist dissent? The Sioux were awarded approximately $105 million for the illegal taking of the Black Hills. Why did they refuse to take it? Today, after continued compounding of interest, the unclaimed sum is approximately $2 billion. Do you think it wise to continue to reject the money? What would you do?
The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868聽created the Great Sioux Reservation, which included the Black Hills. These lands were promised to the Sioux, but that promise was not kept. How did the treaty factor into the High Court鈥檚 decision?

Justice Byron White, California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians, February 25, 1987

The Supreme Court ruled that California could not prevent Indian reservations within its borders from conducting gambling operations on the reservation. What was the Court鈥檚 rationale? Were the justices right? Do you think tribal nations should be allowed to operate casinos on their reservations? Is your answer affected by what they do with the money they collect? For instance, would your answer be different if the tribe used the funds to build houses for or educate tribal members rather than disbursing it directly to them or using it to pay government officials鈥� salaries? Do you think economic diversification鈥攗sing the money to start and build up businesses other than casinos鈥攚ould be a better use of the money? What if these enterprises employed tribal citizens?
How does this decision relate to expressions of sovereignty like the Haudenosaunee declaration of war in World War II and McGirt v. Oklahoma?

Nicholas K. Geranios, 鈥淪urvivor Returns to Site of Last Indian Massacre,鈥� September 18, 1988

Some Americans believe that Native Americans disappeared in the 19th century, and most think the Indian Wars ended in 1890. How does it make you feel to know that the last massacre occurred in 1911 when, as the article said, there were cars, airplanes, and motion pictures? Or that the last massacre survivor died only thirty years ago? Do you know people who were alive when Mary Jo Estep passed away? How did Mary Jo Estep feel when she returned to the site of the massacre, where her mother and grandfather were killed? Was she emotional? How would you have felt if it had been you?
How is the Shoshone Mike Massacre described in this document similar to the Wounded Knee Massacre? How is it different?

Standing Rock Sioux, Resolution regarding Dakota Access Pipeline, September 2, 2015

Why did the Standing Rock Sioux say they were opposed to the Dakota Access Pipeline? Did their reasons perhaps go beyond those stated in the resolution? How do you feel about the pipeline traversing Indian lands and potentially damaging cultural sites? We must transport petroleum somehow, and statistically, pipelines are safer than transporting oil by truck or train. Are there alternatives?
Can you see any relationship between the protest at Standing Rock and the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868? What about to the occupation of Alcatraz (See Alcatraz Proclamation)?

Justice Neil Gorsuch, McGirt v. Oklahoma, July 9, 2020

Jimcy McGirt was a Seminole man who had committed heinous crimes. What was the Supreme Court majority鈥檚 reasoning in ruling that he had been wrongfully tried and convicted by the state of Oklahoma? McGirt was not released by the decision; he would have to be retried in federal court. Does this seem right to you? What does the McGirt decision say about the continued vitality of tribal national sovereignty in the twenty-first century?
What relationships can you see between the High Court鈥檚 decision in this case and that in United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians?

Native Americans

Receive resources and noteworthy updates.

Join your fellow teachers in discussing the Core Documents.